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Research

The MD4 Reading (Mental Development for Reading) curriculum is a research based digital reading intervention that uses video game technology to remediate the cognitive and phonological weaknesses and deficits associated with dyslexia / struggling reading and teaches the struggling reader how to use their newly acquired skills to become a more fluent.

Following is a partial list of the research that was used in the development of the MD4 Reading curriculum.

 

  • Alevras V. Reber D, Griffin JR. Dysphoneidetic dyslexia and visual perception: is there a relationship? On file in the M.B. Ketchum Memorial Library of Southern California College of Optometry, 1994.
  • Anderson JR. Language, memory and thought. Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Earlbaum Assoc. 1976.
  • Anderson JR. Acquisition of cognitive skill. Psychological Review, 1982.
  • Atkinson RC, Shiffrin RM. Human memory: A proposed system and its control processes. In K.W. Spence and J.T. Spence (Eds.). The psychology of learning and motivation. 1968.
  • Baddeley AD. Working memory, Oxford: Clarendon Press.
  • Baddeley AD. The psychology of memory. New York: Basic Books.
  • Bakker DJ. Temporal order in disturbed reading, developmental and neuropsychological aspects in normal and reading-retarded children. Rotterdam: Rotterdam University Press 1972.
  • Bauer RH. Memory process in children with learning disabilities: Evidence for deficient rehearsal. Journal of Learning Disabilities 1977.
  • Bauer RH. Recall after a short delay and acquisition in learning disabled and nondisables children. Journal of Learning Disabilities 1979.
  • Bauer RH. Control processes as a way of understanding, diagnosing and remediating learning disabilities. IN L.L. Swanson, (Ed.) Advances in learning and behavioral disabilities: Memory and learning disabilities. 1987.
  • Brainerd C, Kingma J, Howe M. Lont-term memory development and learning disability: Storage and retrieval loci of disabled/nondisabled differences. In S.J. Ceci (Ed.). Handbook of cognitive, social and neuropsychological aspects of learning disabilities. 1986.
  • Camp BW, Dolcourt JL. Reading and spelling in good and poor readers. Journal of Learn Disabilities 1977
  • Cardinal DN, Christenson GN, Griffin JR. Neurological-behavioral model of dyslexia. J Behavior Optom 1993
  • Ceci SJ. A developmental study of learning disabilities and memory. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, 1984.
  • Ceci SJ, Lea SE, Ringstrom MD. Coding process in normal and learning disables children: Evidence for modality specific pathways to the cognitive system. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Learning and Memory 1980.
  • Christenson GN, Herriott MA, Ueda JT, Griffin JR. Dyseidesia and Visual Memory. On file in the M.B.
  • Curley JF, Reilly LJ. Sensory process instruction with learning disables children. Perceptual and Motor Skills 1983
  • Dempster FN. Memory span and short term memory capacity: A developmental study. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology 1978
  • Dempster FN. Short term memory development in childhood and adolescence. In C.H. Brainerd & M. Pressley (eds.). Basic process in memory development: Progress in cognitive development research. New York: Springer-Verlag 1985
  • Dunn R. Teaching students through their perceptual strengths or preferences. Journal of Reading 1988.
  • Do N, Lo A, Griffin JR. The performance of dysphonetic dyslexics on the Test of Visual Perceptual Skills. On file in the M.B. Ketchum Memorial Library of Southern California College of Optometry, 1992.
  • Eden GF, Stein JR, Wood MH, Wood FB. Verbal and visual problems in reading disability. J Learn Disabil. 1995.
  • Eden GF, Moats L. The role of neuroscience in the remediation of students with dyslexia, Nat. Neuroscience 2002
  • Egan DE, Schwartz BJ. Chunking in recall of symbolic drawings. Memory and Cognition 1979.
  • Elias PK, Elias MF, Robbins MA, Gage P. Acquisition of word-processing skills by younger, middle-aged and older adults. Psychology and Aging 1987.
  • Ellis J. Transfer failure and proactive interference in short-term memory. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Learning and Memory 1977
  • Erickson GB, Griffin JR, Bowman B, Hinkle J, Grove J, Kaw R. Dyseidetic dyslexia: effect on visual decoding speed and accuracy. J Optom Vis Development 2000
  • Farnham-Diggory S, Gregg LW. Short-term memory function in young readers. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, 1975.
  • Ferreri MV, Thompson KL, Griffin JR. Comparison of vergence facility between dyseidetic dyslexics, dysphonetic dyslexics and non-dyslexics. On file in the M.B. Ketchum Memorial Library of Southern California College of Optometry, 1994
  • Fitts PM. Perceptual-motor skill learning. IN A.W. Melton (Ed.). Categories of human learning. New York: Academic Press. 1964
  • Fischer KW. A theory of cognitive development: The control and construction of hierarchies of skills. Psychological Review, 1980
  • Flynn J, Deering WM. Subtypes of dyslexia; investigation of Boder’s classification system using quantitative neurophysiology. Dev. Med Child Neurol. 1989
  • Frick RW. Testing visual short-term memory: Simultaneous versus sequential presentations. Memory & Cognition, 1985.
  • Gardner MF. Test of Visual Perceptual Skills. Burlingame, CA: Psychological & Educational Publications, 1982
  • Gathercole, S. E. and Baddeley, A. D. Evaluation of the role of phonological STM in the development of vocabulary in children: A longitudinal study. Journal of Memory and Language 1989
  • Gathercole, S. E. and Baddeley, A. D. (1990). The role of phonological memory in vocabulary
  • acquisition: A study of young children learning new names. British Journal of Psychology, 1990
  • Gathercole, S. E. and Baddeley, A. D. Working memory and language . Hove: Erlbaum 1993
  • Gathercole, S. E. and Baddeley, A. D. The Children's Test of Nonword Repetition. Psychological Corporation, UK 1996

  • Gee, J. P. Good video games and good learning. Phi Kappa Phi Forum, 2005

  • Gee, J. P. Good video games and good learning: Collected essays on video games, learning, and literacy. New York: Peter Lang 2007

  • Gee, J. P. (2009). Deep learning properties of good digital games: How far can they go? In U. Ritterfeld, M. Cody, & P. Vorderer (Eds.) Serious games: Mechanisms and effects. New York, NY: Routledge 2009

  • Geschwind N. Specializations of the human brain. Sci. Am. 1979
  • Gillingham A, Stillman B. Remedial training for children with specific disability in reading, spelling, and penmanship. Cambridge, MA Educators Publishing Service, 1965
  • Glanzer M. Storage mechanisms in recall. In The psychology of learning and motivation, G Bower (ed.), 1972
  • Griffin JR. Optometry’s role in reading dysfunction. J Optom Vis Development 1999
  • Griffin JR, Walton HN. Therapy in Dyslexia and Reading Problems including Vision, Perception motor Skills, 2nd ed. Los Angles: Instructional Materials & Equipment Distributors, 1999
  • Griffin JR. Genetics of Dyseidetic dyslexia. Optom Vis Sci. 1992
  • Griffin JR. Prevalence of dyslexia. J Optom Vis Development 1992
  • Griffin JR, Birch TF, Bateman GF, DeLand PN. Dyslexia and visual perception: is there a relation? Optom Vis Sci. 1993
  • Guerin DW, Griffin JR, Gottfried AW, Christenson GN. Dyslexic subtypes and severity levels: are there gender differences? Optom Vis Sci. 1993.
  • Haynes MC, Jenkins JR. Reading instruction in special education resource rooms. American Educational Research Journal 1986
  • Hess TM, Radtke RC. Processing and memory factors in children’s reading comprehension skill. Child Development, 1981
  • Hynd GW, Hynd CR. Dyslexia: neuroanatomical / neurolinguistic perspectives. Reading Res Q 1984
  • Irlen H. Successful treatment of learning disabilities. Paper presented to the 92st Annual Convention of the American Psychological Assoc. Anaheim CA August 1983.
  • Joanisse MF, Manis FR, Kearing P, Seidenberg MS. Language deficits in dyslexic children: speech perception, phonology, and morphology. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology 2000
  • Johnson D, Mykelbust H. Learning disabilities: Educational principles and practices. New York: Grune and Stratton 1967
  • Katz L, Lacadie C, Gore JC. The angular gyrus in developmental dyslexia: task specific differences in functional connectivity within posterior cortex. Psychological Science 2000.
  • Ketchum Memorial Library of Southern California College of Optometry, 1986.
  • Kim J, Pekary L, Griffin JR. Effect of auditory and visual-motor feedback on orthography in dyslexics. Student Research Project, on file in the M.B. Ketchum Memorial Library, Southern California College of Optometry, Fullerton, 2002
  • Kirk SA, Kirk WD. Psycholinguistic learning disabilities: Diagnosis and remediation. Chicago: University of Illinois Press. 1971
  • Kleiman GM. Speech recording in reading. Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior, 1975
  • Ko K, Khan SB, Griffin JR. A comparison between saccadic eye movements of Dyseidetic dyslexics and non-dyslexics. On file in the M.B. Ketchum Memorial Library of Southern California College of Optometry, 1994.
  • Koppitz EM; The Visual Aural Digit Span Test with elementary school children. Journal of Clinical Psychology 1970
  • Koppitz EM: Children with learning disabilities: A five year follow-up study. New York: Grune & Stratton 1968.
  • Koppitz EM: Bender Gestalt Test, Visual Aural Digit Span Test and reading achievement. J. Learning disability 1975.
  • Kuhn, M. Helping students become accurate, expressive readers: Fluency instruction for small groups. Reading Teacher, 2004
  • Kuhn, M.R., & Stahl, S.A. Fluency: A review of developmental and remedial practices. Journal of Educational Psychology, 2003
  • Kuhn, M. R., Schwanenflugel, P.J., Morris, R.D., Morrow, L. M., Bradley, B. A., Meisinger, E., Woo, D., & Stahl, S. A. Teaching children to become fluent and automatic readers. Journal of Literacy Research 2006
  • Kuhn, M. R., & Schwanenflugel, P. J. Fluency-oriented reading instruction: A merging of theory with practice. In K.A.D. Stahl & M.C. McKenna (Eds.), Reading research at work: Foundations of effective practice. NY: Guilford 2006
  • Lawton T. Perception Dynamics, Federally funded (NICHID) research project on testing dyslexic children in the second grade, Los Angles, 2003
  • Levy BA. Speech processing during reading. In A.M. Lesgold, J.W. Pellegrino, S.D. Fokkema & R. Glasner (Eds.), Cognitive psychology and instruction. New York Plenum. 1978
  • Liberman, A. M. & Mattingly, I. G. The motor theory of speech perception revised. Cognition 1985
  • Livingstone MS, Rosen GD, Drislane FW, Galaburda AM. Physiological and anatomical evidence for a magnocellular deficit in developmental dyslexia. Pro Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 1991
  • Lovegrove B. The role of visual and auditory temporal processing in reading irregular and nonsense words. Perception 2001
  • Mastropieri MA. Increasing prose recall of learning disabled and reading disabled students via spatial organizers. Journal of Educational Research, 1987
  • Mattingly, I. G. Reading, the linguistic process, and linguistic awareness. In J. F. Kavanagh & I. G. Mattingly (Eds.), Language by ear and by eye: The relationships between speech and reading.(pp. 133–147). Cambridge, MA: MIT Press. 1972
  • Mattingly, Ignatius G. Speech synthesis for phonetic and phonological models. In Thomas A. Sebeok (Ed.), Current Trends in Linguistics, Volume 12, Mouton, The Hague 1974

  • McClarty KL, Orr A, Frey PM, Dolan RP. Vassileva V, McVay A. A Literature Review of Gaming in Education, Pearson Education, June 2012

  • Meyers MJ. The significance of learning modalities, modes of instruction, and verbal feedback for learning to recognize written words. Learning Disability Quarterly, 1980
  • Pascual-Leone J, Smith J. The encoding and decoding of symbols by children: A new experimental paradigm and a neo-Paigetian model. Journal of Experimental Psychology 1969
  • Perfetti CA, Hogaboam T. The relationship between single word decoding and reading comprehension skill. Journal of Educational Psychology 1975
  • Perfetti CA, Goldman SR. Discourse memory and reading comprehension skill. Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior 1976
  • Pugh KR, Mencl WE, Jenner AR, Katz L, Frost SJ, Lee JR, Shaywitz SE, Shaywitz BA. Neurobiological studies of reading and reading disabilities. J Common Disord. 2001
  • Pugh, K., Jenner, A., Mencl, W., Frost, S., Shaywitz, B., Shaywitz, S., Katz, L., Rueckl, J., Lee, J. R.,
  • Fulbright, R., Marchione, K., & Gore, J. Contrasting silent word recognition with overt pronunciation of printed words and pseudowords.
  • Pugh, K., Mencl, W., Shaywitz, B., Shaywitz, S., Fulbright, R., Constable, R., Skudlarski, P., Marchione, K., Jenner, A., Fletcher, J., Liberman, A., Shankweiler, D., Katz, L., Lacadie, C., & Gore, J. The angular gyrus in developmental dyslexia: task-specific differences in functional connectivity within posterior cortex. Psychological Science 2000
  • Pugh, K. R., Shaywitz, B. A., Shaywitz, S. E., Constable, T. R., Skudlarski, P., Fulbright, R. K., Bronen, R. A., Shankweiler, D. P., Katz, L., Fletcher, J. M., & Gore, J. C. (1996). Cerebral organization of component processes in reading brain 1996
  • Rasinski, T.V. Speed does matter in reading. The Reading Teacher, 2000
  • Rasinski, T. V. The Fluent Reader: Oral reading strategies for building word recognition, fluency, and comprehension. New York: Scholastic Professional Books 2003
  • Rasinski, T. V. Reading fluency instruction: Moving beyond accuracy, automaticity, and prosody. The Reading Teacher 2006
  • Reed MA. Speech perception of the discrimination of brief auditory cues in reading disabled children. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, 1989
  • Rollins HA, Hendricks R. Processing of words presented simultaneously to eye and ear. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Perception & Performance, 1980
  • Ridder WH III, Borsting E, Cooper M, McNeel B, Haung E. Not all dyslexics are created equal. Optom Vis Sci. 1997
  • Ridder WH III, Borsting E, Banton T. Dyseidetic and dysphonetic dyslexics display an elevated motion coherence threshold. Investigative Ophthalmology & Visual Science 1998.
  • Roeltgen DP, Heilman KM. Lexical agraphia: further support for the two-system hypothesis of linguistic agraphia. Brain 1984
  • Rosenthal JH. The neuropschopathology of Written Language. Chicago: Nelson Hall, 1977
  • Scheiman MM, Rouse MW. Optometric Management of Learning Related Vision Problems. St Louis: Mosby, 1994
  • Schwanenflugel, P.J., Hamilton, A.M., Kuhn, M.R., Wisenbaker, J.M., & Stahl, S.A. Becoming a fluent reader: Reading skill and prosodic features in the oral reading of young readers. Journal of Educational Psychology, 2004
  • Scruggs TE, Mastropieri MA, Levin JR. Implications of mnemonic strategy research of theories of learning disabilities. In H.L. Swanson (Ed.) Memory and learning disabilities: Advances in learning and behavioral disabilities. Greenwich CT 1987
  • Senf GM, Freundi PC. Sequential auditory and visual memory in learning disabled children. Proceeding of the Annual Convention of the American Psychological Assoc., 1972
  • Shallice T. Phonological agraphia and the lexical route in writing. Brain (Oxford) 1982
  • Shankweiler D, Liberman IY. Exploring the relations between reading and speech. In R.M Knights & D. J. Bakker (Eds.), Neuropsychology of learning disorders: Theoretical approaches. Baltimore University Park Press, 1976
  • Shaywitz SE, M.D., Shaywitz BA, M.D. The Neurobiology of Reading and Dyslexia NCSALL 2001
  • Torgeson JK. Studies of children with learning disabilities who perform poorly on memory span tasks. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 1988
  • Torgeson, JK, Rashotte CA, Greenstein J, Houck G, Portes P. Academic difficulties of learning disabled children who perform poorly on memory span tasks. I H.L. Swanson (Ed.), Advances in learning and behavioral difficulties: Memory and learning disabilities. Greenwich CT: JAI Press, 1987
  • Torgeson, Rashotte, and Alexander. The Prevention of Reading Difficulties, Journal of School Psychology, 2001.
  • Wagner, R. K. & Torgeson, J. K. The nature of phonological processing and its causal role in the acquisition of reading skills. Psychol. Bull. 1987
  • Webster RE. The criterion-related validity of psychoeducational tests for actual reading ability of learning disabled students. Psychology in the Schools, 1985
  • Wickens DD. Characteristics of word encoding. IN A. W. Melton & E. Martin (Eds.), Coding processes in Human Memory, Washington, D.C.: Winston 1972
  • Worden TW, Franklin MR. Adapting tutorial techniques to perceptual modalities of deficient readers. Educational Research Quarterly, 1986
  • Zabell C, Everatt J. Surface and phonological subtypes of adult developmental dyslexia. Dyslexia 2002