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Research

The MD4 Reading (Mental Development for Reading) curriculum is a research based digital reading intervention that uses video game technology to remediate the cognitive and phonological weaknesses and deficits associated with dyslexia / struggling reading and teaches the struggling reader how to use their newly acquired skills to become a more fluent. 

Featured Research: MD4 Reading White Paper

  • Independent Literacy Growth at Scale - Learn how MD4 Reading enables students to develop literacy skills independently reducing teacher intervention time and increasing access for all learners.

                

                  Download MD4 Reading White Paper (Free PDF)

  •  Includes implementation model and ROI comparison.

 

Contemporary research continues to examine the cognitive, phonological, memory, visual, orthographic, and fluency processes involved in learning to read. The following recent studies complement the foundational research used in the development of MD4 Reading and demonstrate the continuing importance of these underlying processes in reading development and reading difficulties.

  • Erbeli, F., Rice, M., Xu, Y., Bishop, M. E., & Goodrich, J. M. (2024). “A Meta-Analysis on the Optimal Cumulative Dosage of Early Phonemic Awareness Instruction.” Scientific Studies of Reading, 28(4), 345–370.

  • Hachmann, W. M., Cashdollar, N., Postiglione, F., & Job, R. (2020). “The Relationship of Domain-General Serial Order Memory and Reading Ability in School Children With and Without Dyslexia.” Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, 193, 104789.

  • Kimel, E., Daikhin, L., Jakoby, H., et al. (2024). “Reduced Benefit From Long-Term Item Frequency Contributes to Short-Term Memory Deficits in Dyslexia.” Memory & Cognition, 52, 1928–1940.

  • Solbi, A., & Earle, F. S. (2025). “The Role of Sleep in Memory Consolidation and Reading in Dyslexia.” Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience, 37(3), 532–542.

  • Li, Y., & Wang, M. (2023). “A Systematic Review of Orthographic Learning via Self-Teaching.” Educational Psychologist, 58(1), 35–56.

  • Valdois, S., Zaher, A., Meyer, S., Diard, J., Mandin, S., & Bosse, M. L. (2025). “Effectiveness of Visual Attention Span Training on Learning to Read and Spell: A Digital-Game-Based Intervention in Classrooms.” Reading Research Quarterly, 60(1), e576.

  • Lee, M. M., & Stoodley, C. J. (2024). “Neural Bases of Reading Fluency: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis.” Neuropsychologia, 202, 108947.

  • Vaughn, S., et al. (2022). Providing Reading Interventions for Students in Grades 4–9. What Works Clearinghouse, Institute of Education Sciences, U.S. Department of Education.

The following is a partial list of the foundational research used in the development of the MD4 Reading curriculum and its approach to the cognitive and phonological prerequisite skills necessary for fluent reading. 

  • Alevras V. Reber D, Griffin JR. Dysphoneidetic dyslexia and visual perception: is there a relationship? On file in the M.B. Ketchum Memorial Library of Southern California College of Optometry, 1994.
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  • Anderson JR. Acquisition of cognitive skill. Psychological Review, 1982.
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  • Bakker DJ. Temporal order in disturbed reading, developmental and neuropsychological aspects in normal and reading-retarded children. Rotterdam: Rotterdam University Press 1972.
  • Bauer RH. Memory process in children with learning disabilities: Evidence for deficient rehearsal. Journal of Learning Disabilities 1977.
  • Bauer RH. Recall after a short delay and acquisition in learning disabled and nondisables children. Journal of Learning Disabilities 1979.
  • Bauer RH. Control processes as a way of understanding, diagnosing and remediating learning disabilities. IN L.L. Swanson, (Ed.) Advances in learning and behavioral disabilities: Memory and learning disabilities. 1987.
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  • Cardinal DN, Christenson GN, Griffin JR. Neurological-behavioral model of dyslexia. J Behavior Optom 1993
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  • Christenson GN, Herriott MA, Ueda JT, Griffin JR. Dyseidesia and Visual Memory. On file in the M.B.
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  • Dempster FN. Memory span and short term memory capacity: A developmental study. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology 1978
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  • Do N, Lo A, Griffin JR. The performance of dysphonetic dyslexics on the Test of Visual Perceptual Skills. On file in the M.B. Ketchum Memorial Library of Southern California College of Optometry, 1992.
  • Eden GF, Stein JR, Wood MH, Wood FB. Verbal and visual problems in reading disability. J Learn Disabil. 1995.
  • Eden GF, Moats L. The role of neuroscience in the remediation of students with dyslexia, Nat. Neuroscience 2002
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  • Elias PK, Elias MF, Robbins MA, Gage P. Acquisition of word-processing skills by younger, middle-aged and older adults. Psychology and Aging 1987.
  • Ellis J. Transfer failure and proactive interference in short-term memory. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Learning and Memory 1977
  • Erickson GB, Griffin JR, Bowman B, Hinkle J, Grove J, Kaw R. Dyseidetic dyslexia: effect on visual decoding speed and accuracy. J Optom Vis Development 2000
  • Farnham-Diggory S, Gregg LW. Short-term memory function in young readers. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, 1975.
  • Ferreri MV, Thompson KL, Griffin JR. Comparison of vergence facility between dyseidetic dyslexics, dysphonetic dyslexics and non-dyslexics. On file in the M.B. Ketchum Memorial Library of Southern California College of Optometry, 1994
  • Fitts PM. Perceptual-motor skill learning. IN A.W. Melton (Ed.). Categories of human learning. New York: Academic Press. 1964
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  • Flynn J, Deering WM. Subtypes of dyslexia; investigation of Boder’s classification system using quantitative neurophysiology. Dev. Med Child Neurol. 1989
  • Frick RW. Testing visual short-term memory: Simultaneous versus sequential presentations. Memory & Cognition, 1985.
  • Gardner MF. Test of Visual Perceptual Skills. Burlingame, CA: Psychological & Educational Publications, 1982
  • Gathercole, S. E. and Baddeley, A. D. Evaluation of the role of phonological STM in the development of vocabulary in children: A longitudinal study. Journal of Memory and Language 1989
  • Gathercole, S. E. and Baddeley, A. D. (1990). The role of phonological memory in vocabulary
  • acquisition: A study of young children learning new names. British Journal of Psychology, 1990
  • Gathercole, S. E. and Baddeley, A. D. Working memory and language . Hove: Erlbaum 1993
  • Gathercole, S. E. and Baddeley, A. D. The Children's Test of Nonword Repetition. Psychological Corporation, UK 1996

  • Gee, J. P. Good video games and good learning. Phi Kappa Phi Forum, 2005 

  • Gee, J. P. Good video games and good learning: Collected essays on video games, learning, and literacy. New York: Peter Lang 2007 

  • Gee, J. P. (2009). Deep learning properties of good digital games: How far can they go? In U. Ritterfeld, M. Cody, & P. Vorderer (Eds.) Serious games: Mechanisms and effects. New York, NY: Routledge 2009

  • Geschwind N. Specializations of the human brain. Sci. Am. 1979
  • Gillingham A, Stillman B. Remedial training for children with specific disability in reading, spelling, and penmanship. Cambridge, MA Educators Publishing Service, 1965
  • Glanzer M. Storage mechanisms in recall. In The psychology of learning and motivation, G Bower (ed.), 1972
  • Griffin JR. Optometry’s role in reading dysfunction. J Optom Vis Development 1999
  • Griffin JR, Walton HN. Therapy in Dyslexia and Reading Problems including Vision, Perception motor Skills, 2nd ed. Los Angles: Instructional Materials & Equipment Distributors, 1999
  • Griffin JR. Genetics of Dyseidetic dyslexia. Optom Vis Sci. 1992
  • Griffin JR. Prevalence of dyslexia. J Optom Vis Development 1992
  • Griffin JR, Birch TF, Bateman GF, DeLand PN. Dyslexia and visual perception: is there a relation? Optom Vis Sci. 1993
  • Guerin DW, Griffin JR, Gottfried AW, Christenson GN. Dyslexic subtypes and severity levels: are there gender differences? Optom Vis Sci. 1993.
  • Haynes MC, Jenkins JR. Reading instruction in special education resource rooms. American Educational Research Journal 1986
  • Hess TM, Radtke RC. Processing and memory factors in children’s reading comprehension skill. Child Development, 1981
  • Hynd GW, Hynd CR. Dyslexia: neuroanatomical / neurolinguistic perspectives. Reading Res Q 1984
  • Irlen H. Successful treatment of learning disabilities. Paper presented to the 92st Annual Convention of the American Psychological Assoc. Anaheim CA August 1983.
  • Joanisse MF, Manis FR, Kearing P, Seidenberg MS. Language deficits in dyslexic children: speech perception, phonology, and morphology. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology 2000
  • Johnson D, Mykelbust H. Learning disabilities: Educational principles and practices. New York: Grune and Stratton 1967
  • Katz L, Lacadie C, Gore JC. The angular gyrus in developmental dyslexia: task specific differences in functional connectivity within posterior cortex. Psychological Science 2000.
  • Ketchum Memorial Library of Southern California College of Optometry, 1986.
  • Kim J, Pekary L, Griffin JR. Effect of auditory and visual-motor feedback on orthography in dyslexics. Student Research Project, on file in the M.B. Ketchum Memorial Library, Southern California College of Optometry, Fullerton, 2002
  • Kirk SA, Kirk WD. Psycholinguistic learning disabilities: Diagnosis and remediation. Chicago: University of Illinois Press. 1971
  • Kleiman GM. Speech recording in reading. Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior, 1975
  • Ko K, Khan SB, Griffin JR. A comparison between saccadic eye movements of Dyseidetic dyslexics and non-dyslexics. On file in the M.B. Ketchum Memorial Library of Southern California College of Optometry, 1994.
  • Koppitz EM; The Visual Aural Digit Span Test with elementary school children. Journal of Clinical Psychology 1970
  • Koppitz EM: Children with learning disabilities: A five year follow-up study. New York: Grune & Stratton 1968.
  • Koppitz EM: Bender Gestalt Test, Visual Aural Digit Span Test and reading achievement. J. Learning disability 1975.
  • Kuhn, M. Helping students become accurate, expressive readers: Fluency instruction for small groups. Reading Teacher, 2004
  • Kuhn, M.R., & Stahl, S.A. Fluency: A review of developmental and remedial practices. Journal of Educational Psychology, 2003
  • Kuhn, M. R., Schwanenflugel, P.J., Morris, R.D., Morrow, L. M., Bradley, B. A., Meisinger, E., Woo, D., & Stahl, S. A. Teaching children to become fluent and automatic readers. Journal of Literacy Research 2006
  • Kuhn, M. R., & Schwanenflugel, P. J. Fluency-oriented reading instruction: A merging of theory with practice. In K.A.D. Stahl & M.C. McKenna (Eds.), Reading research at work: Foundations of effective practice. NY: Guilford 2006
  • Lawton T. Perception Dynamics, Federally funded (NICHID) research project on testing dyslexic children in the second grade, Los Angles, 2003
  • Levy BA. Speech processing during reading. In A.M. Lesgold, J.W. Pellegrino, S.D. Fokkema & R. Glasner (Eds.), Cognitive psychology and instruction. New York Plenum. 1978
  • Liberman, A. M. & Mattingly, I. G. The motor theory of speech perception revised. Cognition 1985
  • Livingstone MS, Rosen GD, Drislane FW, Galaburda AM. Physiological and anatomical evidence for a magnocellular deficit in developmental dyslexia. Pro Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 1991
  • Lovegrove B. The role of visual and auditory temporal processing in reading irregular and nonsense words. Perception 2001
  • Mastropieri MA. Increasing prose recall of learning disabled and reading disabled students via spatial organizers. Journal of Educational Research, 1987
  • Mattingly, I. G. Reading, the linguistic process, and linguistic awareness. In J. F. Kavanagh & I. G. Mattingly (Eds.), Language by ear and by eye: The relationships between speech and reading.(pp. 133–147). Cambridge, MA: MIT Press. 1972
  • Mattingly, Ignatius G. Speech synthesis for phonetic and phonological models. In Thomas A. Sebeok (Ed.), Current Trends in Linguistics, Volume 12, Mouton, The Hague 1974

  • McClarty KL, Orr A, Frey PM, Dolan RP. Vassileva V, McVay A. A Literature Review of Gaming in Education, Pearson Education, June 2012

  • Meyers MJ. The significance of learning modalities, modes of instruction, and verbal feedback for learning to recognize written words. Learning Disability Quarterly, 1980
  • Pascual-Leone J, Smith J. The encoding and decoding of symbols by children: A new experimental paradigm and a neo-Paigetian model. Journal of Experimental Psychology 1969
  • Perfetti CA, Hogaboam T. The relationship between single word decoding and reading comprehension skill. Journal of Educational Psychology 1975
  • Perfetti CA, Goldman SR. Discourse memory and reading comprehension skill. Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior 1976
  • Pugh KR, Mencl WE, Jenner AR, Katz L, Frost SJ, Lee JR, Shaywitz SE, Shaywitz BA. Neurobiological studies of reading and reading disabilities. J Common Disord. 2001
  • Pugh, K., Jenner, A., Mencl, W., Frost, S., Shaywitz, B., Shaywitz, S., Katz, L., Rueckl, J., Lee, J. R.,
  • Fulbright, R., Marchione, K., & Gore, J. Contrasting silent word recognition with overt pronunciation of printed words and pseudowords.
  • Pugh, K., Mencl, W., Shaywitz, B., Shaywitz, S., Fulbright, R., Constable, R., Skudlarski, P., Marchione, K., Jenner, A., Fletcher, J., Liberman, A., Shankweiler, D., Katz, L., Lacadie, C., & Gore, J. The angular gyrus in developmental dyslexia: task-specific differences in functional connectivity within posterior cortex. Psychological Science 2000
  • Pugh, K. R., Shaywitz, B. A., Shaywitz, S. E., Constable, T. R., Skudlarski, P., Fulbright, R. K., Bronen, R. A., Shankweiler, D. P., Katz, L., Fletcher, J. M., & Gore, J. C. (1996). Cerebral organization of component processes in reading brain 1996
  • Rasinski, T.V. Speed does matter in reading. The Reading Teacher, 2000
  • Rasinski, T. V. The Fluent Reader: Oral reading strategies for building word recognition, fluency, and comprehension. New York: Scholastic Professional Books 2003
  • Rasinski, T. V. Reading fluency instruction: Moving beyond accuracy, automaticity, and prosody. The Reading Teacher 2006
  • Reed MA. Speech perception of the discrimination of brief auditory cues in reading disabled children. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, 1989
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